#History of Term baroque (268)
 #Cultural/Geog.
 #Patronage: Court support of the Arts
 #Features of the new style
 #EARLY OPERA

 #Monody
 #Monteverdi

History of Term "baroque" (268)

1733: a critic calls Rameau’s "Hyppolyte et Aricie" "noisy, unmelodious, with capricious & extravagant modulations, repetitions & metrical changes"—in a word, "barocque".

1750 de Brosse calls the facelift given to the Pamphili Palace in Rome "baroque." (see illustration)

19^th century: Burkhardt and Baedeker, historians of art, apply term to 17^th century art and architecture

1920s: term applied to music of late 16^th-mid-18^th centuries.

Good connotations: flamboyant, dramatic, imposing, ornate, vigorous, daring, etc.

Approximate dates (music): 1600-1750. The music of this period however cannot be lumped under a single style. The sound of music in the early 1600s is quite different from that of the period of Bach and Handel.

Cultural/Geog. Background

Italy dominates in music through the entire period
 

Cities and city-states developed their own musical life which had great influence throughout Europe. Florence, Rome, Venice and Naples all were centers for opera and each contributed its unique qualities to the style; Rome was (of course) a center for sacred music, as St. Mark’s in Venice continued to be; Bologna (northern Italy) was an important center for instrumental music.

France was influenced by Italy most in 1^st half of 17^th century; after 1630 began to develop its own national musical style, led by Lully, Louis XIV’s main composer and the developer of French Opera.
Germany was influenced most by Italy in 2^nd half of 17^th century, and later

Patronage: Court support of the arts

The major patrons of music (who hired composers and performers to work on demand) were the courts (of which the French court of Louis XIV was the richest and most imitated), city-states like Venice; the Church (although its influence was declining somewhat), private academies. Public concerts rare—1^st was in England in 1672.

Literature/poetry/drama: Milton, Cervantes, Moliere

Painting/sculpture: Rembrandt, Velazquez, Bernini

Science: Leibniz, Galileo, Kepler, Newton

Philosophy: Descartes, Bacon. This is the beginning of rationalism.

Contemporary musicians knew they were doing something new. Monteverdi referred to the "prima prattica" and "seconda prattica" in his own music. Other names were "stile antico/moderno" and "stylus gravis/luxurians" to indicate the two types of music.

Idiomatic writing for instruments

Rise of the soloist focused attention on special qualities of each instrument, as opposed to the older polyphony which minimized contrasts between instruments

Development of the violin family was the single most important innovation in instruments. (But viols didn’t immediately become obsolete—French developed a highly sophisticated school of viol composition, and Marin Marais was the most important composer of French viol music.

Singing took on more virtuosic qualities, vocal ornamentation becomes important; composers begin to write out ornaments. Sung lines become more "instrumental" in nature.

Doctrine of affections

"affections" were "states of the soul." These were generic attributes that could in a sense be "frozen" in visual images (e.g., stock facial expressions, dramatic poses, distortion) or musical melodic formulas and motives.

Composers sought to depict emotions in a very objective way such that they were embodied in the music itself rather than representing the presumed feelings of the composer. This is why baroque music can sometimes sound impersonal.

A feature often mentioned in connection with affections is that it was understood that within a single piece or movement only one basic affection (feeling) should prevail. This resulted in a fairly uniform texture within movements (as opposed to the dynamic and thematic contrasts of the classic era). This also tended to make baroque instrumental music monothematic and nondevelopmental. Unity was achieved by restating a theme in a number of different keys, each statement being separated by musical episodes often containing sequential passages or passages of imitation.

Rhythm: There were 2 basic approaches to rhythm: regular clock-like, with layering of different values (one voice moves in ½ notes, another in ¼ notes, and another in 1/8 notes); and very free rhythm, used mainly in operatic recitatives.

Measures make their appearance in 17^th century, showing the developing sense of meter. However, 4/4 meter did not always clearly distinguish between the accent on 1 and the accent on 3.

Continuo

Basic definition: a bass line plus chords, under a soprano melody

Inner parts become less important melodically as the sense of vertical harmony develops

Inner parts were improvised according to certain rules. Numbers and accidentals were placed above (later, below) the bass to tell the player what notes to put in the harmony above each bass note.

Various instruments could play both the bass and the chords. Typical was harpsichord or organ, with a cello or bass viol or bassoon to reinforce the bass line.

"New Counterpoint"

Counterpoint didn’t die out with monody, but contrapuntal lines now had to work within a developing sense of chordal harmony. This sense was conveyed by the continuo. It remained in effect for the rest of the period.

Changing nature of dissonance. Perceived "less as in interval between 2 voices" than as a tone not in the chord.

Chains of suspensions develop with Corelli and others

Chromaticism

Becomes a device for intensifying the direction of harmonic flow rather than as a coloristic device to reinforce text meanings

Major/Minor system

Strengthening the sense of key, and hence the idea of modulation--secondary or temporary tonalities that stand in relation to the primary one. V-I cadence becomes principal means for establishing key.

Melodic writing becomes more triad-oriented and hence tonality-defining.

Use of harmonic "progressions" rather than retrogressions becomes more prominent.

Reduction of the 7 modes to 2: Major and Minor.

If you look at 3 examples from NAWM: Lassus p. 240, Monteverdi, p. 293 (the chorus part); and Legrenzi, p. 436, you can chart the root movements of the harmonies. You see many more "down-a-5^th" root movements in the Legrenzi. Down a 5^th, Down a 3^rd, and up a 2^nd are considered "strong" by theorists. You find many more of these root movements after the middle of the 17^th century.

Rameau’s Treatise on Harmony of 1722

A "somewhat bulky" book in 4 parts:

on chords, ratios & proportions and their interrelations

on the fundamental bass and nature and properties of chords

principles of composition

principles of accompaniment (i.e., thorough-bass)

Contains all of his essential ideas (which he developed more thoroughly in his later works: Generation and inversion of intervals and chords, fundamental bass, chords by "supposition" and relation of melody to harmony.

He tried to cast his ideas in scientific form, basing his theories on natural law as did Newton, Harvey, Locke, Spinoza did in science and philosophy. He was heavily influenced by Descartes.

His major contributions were

fundamental bass—the idea of chord roots

inversion of intervals and chords as being the equivalent to their root position versions (the identity of a triad irrespective of inversion)

developed a theory of 7^th chords (and of 9th and 11th chords as well)

Most important forerunners/developments were:

1. Intermedi sing. intermedio (also intermezzi, sing. intermezzo): "pastoral, allegorical (use of symbolic fictional figures to represent truths or generalizations about human existence) or mythological interludes" performed between acts of a play. These could be very lavish and expensive if done for important state occasions. The Italian dramatic revival dates from the late 1400s. Music in the form of vocal solos, duets, choruses (reminiscent of Greek tragedy), madrigals and instrumental selections was used in most plays and tended to come at the beginning and ends of acts. There was usually a relationship between the allegorical subject of these intermedi and the main play--for example, the gods might act out a fable in the intermedio which was an allegory of the drama enacted by mortals in the play. Important intermedi were performed Florence, 1539 (marriage of Cosimo I and Eleonora of Toledo), music by Corteccia incl. madrigals 4-8 voices w/ var. instr. acc.; also Florence 1565, 1569 both by A. Striggio. Similar productions in Ferrar, 1541, 1545; Venice 1565 and 1566; also Vicenza, 1585; settings of 4 choruses from Sophocles' Oedipus Rex by A. Gabrieli. But the big one was Florence 1589: the wedding of Grand Duke Ferdinand de' Medici and Christine of Lorraine. Many of the main figures of early opera had a hand in this one: Bardi planned it, Rinuccini (wrote some of the words), music was by Marenzio, Cavalieri, and Malvezzi. 41 well-known musicians took part; the final madrigal required 7 different vocal ensembles and was in 30 parts. [See also the description and illustration in the text, p. 277.]
2. Operatic madrigals were those in which the composer set a dramatic text from a poem. Your book mentions Il Pastor Fido by Guarini (p. 278). Madrigal cycles, composed for private concerts, contained a series of scenes or moods outlining a simple comic plot. L'Amfiparnaso by Vecchi, 1597, is the most famous.
3. Pastoral--poems about shepherds, etc.; idyllic, amatory (about love), fairy-tale settings, not too complicated.
4. Writings of Girolamo Mei, a scholar from Florence, editor of Greek tragedies; he thought that all of Greek tragedy was sung. His opinions influenced Bardi and V. Galilei (see below)
5. The Florentine Camerata was a group of Florentine intellectuals hosted by Count Giovanni de' Bardi from the early 1570s. They discussed science and the arts, and performed new music. There were many other similar groups functioning in Renaissance Italy--something that is easy to forget because of the Camerata's role in the history of opera. Other facts about the Camerata: Vincenzo Galilei (father of Galileo, the scientist and astronomer) corresponded with Mei about the singing of Greek tragedy and incorporated Mei's ideas in his "Dialogue about Ancient and Modern Music," which became a manifesto for the new musical style. Bardi left the group in 1592 and leadership passed to Jacopo Corsi. Others in the group were Rinuccini, the poet; Cavalieri, Peri, and Caccini. The latter two were famous singers who also composed (Caccini's 2 daughters were also singers, and one was a composer.) The first opera is generally considered to be Dafne (1597, now lost), libretto by Rinuccini, music by Peri. The earliest surviving opera is Euridice, in versions by Peri and Caccini (1600). All of this music was the result of theorizing about the "perfect union" of poetry and music in ancient Greece. The principal idea was that the music must be subordinate to the words. To that end: 1) The text must be clearly understood; 2) the words must be sung with a speech-like declamation (not in dance-like rhythm); 3) feelings must be expressed with an emotional quality achieved through the musical imitation of emotional speech, rather than the "word-painting" used in traditional madrigals.

Monody is a general term for all types of solo singing of the early 17th century. It includes both recitative and aria as well as the solo-voice madrigals of Monteverdi and others. The idea is similar in all cases: expressive singing that is closely related to emotional speech.

Peri, Caccini, and Cavalieri all strove for speech-song, but credit for inventing the recitative style goes to Peri. Caccini tended toward a more melodic style to which he added carefully notated embellishments, including gruppi (what we today call a trill), trilli (rapid reiteration of a single note), musical explanations (sforzati), and tempo rubato (he didn't call it that however).

Peri's recitatives relied on a stationary bass over which a freely-moving voice part could move through both dissonance and consonance, arriving to rest on a note that then "opened the way to a new harmony."

L'Orfeo (perf. Mantua, 1607), his first opera. Patterned after the Euridice operas; libretto by Striggio (the writer of intermedi). Had a rich palette of vocal and instrumental resources, better recitatives with more tonal organization, and plenty of contrasting numbers to break up the monotony of the recitative. Written on a much bigger scale throughout than Peri's work. Monteverdi wrote out embellished versions of many of the melodies in the published version of 1609.

Donald Grout's A short history of opera, 2nd ed. has a chapter on this opera (pp. 51-60). It discusses the poetic structure, which has 10 distinct sections; the symmetry of the musical structures and the opera as a whole (prologue-dramatic action-epilogue); the instrumentation (very elaborate); the character of the arias, especially "Possente spirto" which occurs in act III, a "remarkable example of the florid solo style of the period." Monteverdi wrote out the embellishments on a separate staff. Grout also points out that Monteverdi paid more attention to the role of the chorus than did his predecessors (58). His summary statement is worth quoting:

Perhaps the most remarkable feature of Orfeo is Monteverdi's sense of form, of a logically articulated, planned musical structure. This is apparent not only in the use of such devices as strophic songs and instrumental ritornellos and in the broad symmetrical structure of the large units, but even in the monodic portions, such as the entire recitative of the messenger in Act II...such places in Peri and Caccini were nearly formless vocal rhapsodies; here they are organized into musical units in which the freedom of declamation is admirably balanced by the careful plan of the passage as a whole. (59)

Bottom line: L'Orfeo is the first really good opera, basically because Monteverdi was a better composer than the others, but also because he placed more importance on musical values as opposed to the strict working out of any theories concerning the relationship between music and speech, such as those that preoccupied the Camerata.

Francesca Caccini: Please see the relevant material in the text for her.

Roman Opera:

Its rise is related to Barberini's election as Pope Urban VIII (1623), since that gave the opportunity for his nephews to stage lavish entertainments. This points out the relationship that then existed between high-ranking church officials and wealth in 17th-cent. Rome.

Most plots were from mythology or epic poetry of Tasso, Ariosto and others. Most significant (prolific) librettist was Rospigliosi, who also became a pope in 1667. Landi (+1655) set his Sant'Alessio. This opera is significant because its overture presages the slow beginning followed by a fast part using fugal techniques. This became common later.

Recit. and aria became more clearly defined, with recit. becoming more speech-like and arias tending toward strophic forms. Mazzocchi cultivated an intermediate form known as "half-aria."

Rossi's "Orfeo" illustrates the shift from putting the drama first to putting entertainment and spectacle first.

Venice:

Opera was imported from Rome in 1637--these productions were public; i.e, tickets were sold and anyone with a ticket could get in. This was the first public opera, a decisive step in opera history. They were low-budget imitations of Roman opera and intermedi.

Opera flourished in Venice partly because of the "party" atmosphere at Carnival (from the day after Xmas to the day before Lent)--it brought people into town and they bought lots of tickets. Venice boasted 9 theaters: 150+ operas produced by  1678.

Although first operas were mythologically based, later plots involved the Crusades, Trojan war, and Roman military history.

Monteverdi's last 2 operas, Return of Ulysses and Coronation of Poppea (1641 & 1642 resp) were produced in Venice. Poppea:

Monteverdi tried a more flexible mix of recitative and song than his predecessors had done. His practice was to write music that he felt best reinforced the meaning and significance of the words at that point. For example NAWM p. 305 points out that he could set blank verse as an aria while at the same time setting lyrical text to recitative if he felt it served the overall dramatic purpose well.

Cavalli: [pupil of Monteverdi]  Developed the aria to the level of a set piece (i.e., a stand-alone work which presumably would be applauded at the end)

Cesti: More polished but less forceful than Cavalli; also focused on developing the aria; his emphasis was on melody in the aria; developed the basics of the bel canto style which has been a hallmark of Italian opera ever since.

SUMMARY

By mid-1600s Italian opera had acquired its main features:

concentration on solo singing

separation of recitative and aria

distinctive styles and patterns for the arias

The development moved broadly from its beginnings in Florence, with the words more important than the music, to Venice as center, with music now predominating over text and plot.

VOCAL CHAMBER MUSIC

Opera was the main form only in Venice; elsewhere in Italy vocal chamber music for amateur performance was the main secular vocal music. But monody and continuo were universal.

Composers needed to find new ways of organizing music in absence of the operatic possibilities of "dramatic dialog and representation of actions." They focused on the possibililties inherent in musical structure.

Strophic aria became preferred method. Each strophe had same harmonic plan, melody was varied within a set framework for each strophe.

The romanesca bass line (& chord progression, see p. 293) was favorite vehicle for setting the ottava rima (see p. 293 for definition and examples of Monteverdi's use of this)

Other ground bass patterns were the chaconne and passacaglia, neither of which was associated with a particular verse form. Both had the following characteristics:

1. 4 measure pattern
2. triple meter
3. slow tempo

CONCERTATO STYLE

Refers to writing out separate voice and instrumental parts; bringing together diverse or contrasting forces into harmonious ensemble.

Types:

• concertato madrigal, a madrigal for voices and instruments, with continuo, and usually alternating instrumental interludes, solo, duet or trio episodes and/or full chorus
• sacred concerto, a sacred vocal work (motet) with instruments playing a prominent part
• instrumental concerto, piece for variety of instruments often featuring one or more soloists in contrast with a larger ensemble with more than one player to a part

Monteverdi's madrigals beginning with the last 6 of Book 5 and continuing with Books 6-8 all have continuo, and many are of the concertato type. A number feature instrumental ritornelli (recurring interludes) [example of ritornelli would be the prologue to his Orfeo].

NAWM 59, Ohimè dov'è il mio ben, from Monteverdi's 7th book, is a good example of the romanesca used to set an ottava rima of Tasso.

"Strong structural scaffolding" (of ostinato & melody) allowed M. to use a variety of devices like canonic imitation, word painting, recitative, dissonance and quasi-improvisatory passages in the voices.

Monteverdi's 8th book of madrigals contains a wide variety of forms and types ranging from vocal solos to full 5-part madrigals and works for chorus, soloists and orchestra. Il Combattimento di Tancredi e Clorinda is an example of "representative genre," i.e. a dramatic scene set to music. [Grout-Palisca (296) calls it genere rappresentativo, which is not the same as stile rappresentativo ("representative style"), a term used for the free recitative style of early opera, especially that which is more speech-like than melodic.] It is scored for narrator (a singing part), Tancred, a tenor, and Clorinda, a soprano, string quartet,  & bass viola da gamba.  The text is from the 12th canto of Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered (Gerusalemme liberata). Tancred, knight of the Crusades, does battle with the pagan Clorinda, and kills her. Besides the protagonists there is a narrator who also sings. During the narration the soloists act out what the narrator is singing. The purpose of the instruments is to suggest the often violent action of the combat. Monteverdi used what he called stile concitato (excited style) [do not confuse with stile concertato], chiefly involving bowed string tremolo effects.

Style points (compare p. 296): Monody became used in the madrigal; ritornello technique became common; bass lines were becoming a true harmonic foundation giving structure to the pieces; concertato style added a new dimension of variety to music. All these developments gave composers a great deal of flexibility to "enlarge and enrich" the pictorial or programmatic aspects of music. It might be noted that this was accomplished primarily through the gradual development of distinct styles, forms and techniques which could then be assigned or tailored to the continuously changing expressive needs of the text. The development of the aria as a distinct type of operatic structure had a liberating effect on the composer and it's not too much to say it brought a purely musical form of expression back into monody. It also created the foundation of the bel canto style, an Italian hallmark that became the standard for vocal solo writing all over Europe.

Vocal Solo Genres

Other than madrigal, the main genres were the canzonet, stand-alone strophic aria, and the cantata. The cantata seems to have emerged as a distinct genre around the mid-17th century. By that time it had become a work for solo voice and continuo, in sections with both recitatives and arias. The text could be either lyrical or dramatic in style. NAWM 60 (by Barbara Strozzi) is an example of the solo cantata. Its sections are distinguished by their forms, tempi, function of the bass line, and the manner of setting the text. The poetic structure sometimes dictates the musical structure, as in the "aria" section (p. 325). Also noteworthy are the bel canto sections in triple meter and the return (at m. 63) of the opening of the "lament," giving a larger-scale sense of structure. Finally, her use of chromaticism and dissonance for expressive effects are worth noting.
A distinction might also be made between simple strophic songs and the somewhat more elaborate strophic variations.  Arias could also be written over an ostinato bass or in ABA form.

Impact of new style on church music (p. 299)

As monody, continuo, and concertato style began to be used in sacred text settings, a distinction between such use (stile moderno) and the conservative style represented by Palestrina (stile antico) was recognized. The latter was taken to be the "supreme model" for church music. Fux's Gradus ad Parnassum ("Steps to Parnassus"
[i.e., perfection]), a famous treatise on counterpoint of the 18th century, was based on a later incarnation of the style which by then had incorporated the major/minor tonal system, functional harmony and regular meter of a later age. Most composers were able to switch freely from one style to the other as needed.

Venice: Uniquely situated on water, a crossroads of trade with the East, its former glory somewhat tarnished by the 17th century, nevertheless remained a major center of musical culture in the 16th-17th centuries. St. Mark's Cathedral (San Marco), see illustrations below (from Janson, History of Art, 2nd ed.): Built in 11th century, Byzantine influenced. Was center for civic as well as religious ceremonies. Music to be performed here was under the auspices of the state, was as majestic as the architectural setting, and was definitely a feast for the senses as well as the spirit. There were two organs, one on each end of the sanctuary. Music written here was chordal and homophonic, with varied textures and sonorities. The sound was full, vibrant and rich. Architecture here determines the musical possibilities. Antiphonal (stereo) effects did not originate here but flourished in this setting. [cori spezzati = divided choirs, one on each end].

If you compare this picture with the picture on p. 390 in Grout/Palisca, you can see the twin pulpits in the background at the entrance to each side of the transept.

Giovanni Gabrieli is the most famous early Baroque composer to write music for polychoirs. An example is In Ecclesiis (NAWM 61).

Gabrieli influenced such composers as Schuetz, H. Praetorius, Jacob Handl, and Hans Leo Hassler, all of whom wrote motets in polychoral style, with instruments.

CATHOLIC CHURCH MUSIC: GENRES

 Grand Concerto: Gabrieli-inspired, colossal, polychoral, "surround sound". Major composer: Benevoli (1605-1672).

"Concerto for few voices". For 1,2 or 3 solo voices and continuo (organ); Important composer: Viadana, Cento concerti ecclesiastici (1602). Other: Grandi, O quam tu pulchra es (NAWM 63), uses several modern techniques (see p. 303, text).

Both types could be combined for contrast in a single work, e.g. Monteverdi's Vespers of 1610.  Also, dramatic elements from the opera could be incorporated into sacred music, as in Cavalieri's Rappresentazione di Anima et di Corpo, 1600. [This work is mentioned in almost all music history surveys.] Rome seemed to be a center for the confluence of sacred music with opera.

Oratorio: Grew out of the "sacred dialogue", which had dramatic elements but were not staged as a rule. Because they were mostly performed in the oratory of the church (see p. 303 for explanation; "lay societies" means priests without vows). Libretti could be in Latin or in Italian. Main composer of Latin oratorios: Carissimi. Example: Jeptha (NAWM 64).

Differences from opera: Narration, use of chorus for "dramatic, narrative, and meditative purposes", sacred subject matter, not staged.

LUTHERAN CHURCH: MUSIC

South German (Catholic) fully under Italian influence, used same styles of monody and concertato; North German (Lutheran) adapted techniques to chorale settings while continuing to use polyphony in some chorale motets and "biblical motets" not based on chorales. Grand concerto medium was used, showing a pref. for the Venetian school. Schein and Schuetz (and others) made use of Italian madrigal styles too.

Few-voiced concerto was particularly popular. Schein's Geistliche Konzerte... can be considered Lutheran equivalent of Monteverdi's concertato madrigals, based freely on chorale melodies (and occasionally free writing). Sometimes these would be preceded by an orchestral "sinfonia." The genre proved popular throughout the 17th century with Lutheran composers.

Schuetz

• was greatest German composer of mid-17th century
• pupil of G. Gabrieli (absorbed Italian style)
• Kapellmeister for elector of Saxony, Dresden.
• known exclusively for his church music, including:
• psalm settings, 4-part, German psalter 1628
• Latin motets (Cantiones sacrae), 1625
• Psalms of David: Venetian polychoral style, 1619
• S. seldom used actual chorale melodies
• Concertato motets: Kleine geistliche Konzerte, Musikalische Exequien, etc. Symphoniae sacrae, 1629, 1647, 1650. (see text p. 307)
• O quam tu pulchra es (Ss 1629) uses a ritornello refrain with 2 violins in imitation for the repeated phrase "O how fair you are..."; also noteworthy for free use of dissonance (see example 9.9, p. 307)
• These types of diss. use are described as "musico-rhetorical" figures by C. Bernhard (1627-1692) in his Tractatus compositionis augmentatus. Why is this important? Because it shows that musicians of the time were well aware that there were "rules" that could be broken if circumstances (i.e. expressing the text) warranted.
• NAWM 65: Saul, was verfolgst du mich from the 3rd collection is example of dramatically conceived "scene" with descriptive writing in the music.
• Oratorios: Seven Last Words (ca. 1645), Christmas Oratorio (1664).
• Passions (3): scored for unaccompanied chorus, and chantlike narration.

INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC

Know the 5 major categories of 17th-century instrumental music as outlined on p. 308. These 5 types may be summarized as fugal, sectional, variation, dance, and [solo] improvisation. If you can remember those 5 names you can attach their descriptions to them more easily. In particular, be aware that the sectional canzona led to the development of the sonata da chiesa ("church" sonata, distinguished from the sonata da camera). Also be aware that they are not mutually exclusive--there is some overlap. As the text points out, variation is a technique that can be used in both the canzona and the dance suite.

Ricercare (pron. "REACH-er-CAR-eh"):

• usually for keyboard
• one theme developed in imitation
• Frescobaldi (1583-1643) was an important composer of them

Fantasia

• formally larger-scale, more complex than ricercare
• Sweelinck, Scheidt
• starts with fugal exposition, followed by successive sections each with "different countersubjects and toccata-like figurations."
• intended as a key- or tonality-establishing prelude to some other music

 

 
 
 

Genres were clearly defined in 17th century, with each type coming from a tradition; canzonas were livelier than ricercares. I think there was also some tendency for ricercare themes to be longer than canzona themes as well.

Consort music in England: viol ensembles were important (with and without organ, and continuo). Leading composers of fantasies for viols: Ferrabosco, Coprario, Jenkins.

Canzona types

contrasting sections, each on a different them, with cadenza passage at end

single theme is basis for sections based on successive variations (ex. 9.11, p. 311)

patchwork type, short sections thematically unrelated, may be repeated w/ or w/o variation later

Sonata

• came to mean a canzona-like form with special features
• often for 1 or 2 melody insts (us. violins) + continuo
• more idiomatic for the chosen instrument(s)
• more "free and expressive" than ensemble canzona
• Marini's Sonata (ex. 9.12) shows these features (p. 312)
• sonata da chiesa simply means "church sonata".
• trio sonata is 2 melody instruments plus continuo (it really required 4 players as the bass line was played both by the keyboardist and a bass-instrument player.)

Variations

• were also called partitas (partite) meaning divisions (another word for variations)
• common techniques
• cantus firmus (melody doesn't change, stuff around it does)
• melody in upper part, embellished and varied each time
• bass and/or harmony is the constant factor (variations on a ground). Example: Frescobaldi's partite on the Aria di Ruggiero (see p. 315). [Ruggiero is similar to romanesca]

Scheidt's Tabulatura nova ["New tablature"](1624). A large collection of organ pieces written out with a separate line for each part. [NOTE: Keyboard music from the 14th century through much of the 17th was often notated in tablature. Scheidt's collection used the new Italian partitura, which involved staff notation and a separate part for each staff. The traditional German systems were of two kinds, an older one which mixed staff notes (in the right hand) with letter names, and a newer one which used only letters, with flags and stems placed above the letters to indicate duration.]

• Revolutionized German organ music and laid the foundation for German organ music culminating in J.S. Bach
• thoroughly explored the variation technique developed by Sweelinck, which involved basing each variation on a melodic-rhythmic pattern and working it out in a very calculated and complete way
• Parts
• first two parts contain fugues, German chorales and secular songs;
• part 3 has "strictly liturgical hymns and [cantus firmus] chorales" (Bukofzer 105). This is the most important part.
• Features: Increased contrast between chorale melody and the surrounding (accompanying) pattern variations

Dance Music: important in and of itself and because it influenced the style of non-dance music. Polish folk-dances increase in importance in western Europe (Germany)

Suites

• Characteristic form was developed in Germany
• compositions in several movements all in same key. Thematic variation extended to all the dances of the suite.
• Schein's Banchetto musicale (Musical Banquet, 1617) uses both variation of a single melodic idea and the "reminiscence" method. Movements were titled, paduana (pavane), gagliarda (galliard), courante, and allemande + tripla. Style combines both Italian and German elements [Humor time: In Germany they say "the situation is serious but not hopeless" while in Italy they say "the situation is hopeless but not serious."]

French Lute and Keyboard music

• individual dances orig. arr. from ballet music
• lute arrangements predated those of keyboard (clavecin) and lute
• style brisé: a way of implying a polyphonic texture on the lute, later harpsichord
• agreménts: French word for ornaments, either written in with special symbols or left to the performer's discretion.
• Gaultier (1603-1672): most important of French lutenists (La Rhétorique des dieux, 12 sets of stylized dances, actually short character pieces). See illustration of lute tablature in text, p. 317.
• French keyboardists: Chambonnières, Louis Couperin, d'Anglebert, Jacquet de la Guerre, François Couperin. All wrote collections of  pieces, especially called ordres.
• Froberger: brought French style to Germany; est. the normal order of allemande, courante, sarabande, and gigue as standard. Example: NAWM 67: a "lament" written in the form of an allemande. Represents integration of stylized dance and genre piece. Features style brisé (see above)

Improvisatory Keyboard Works

• Frescobaldi's toccatas
• feature contemplation over virtuosity
• harmonically original and striking
• reserved, "mystical" mood
• others patterened after Venetian type (probably refers to the variation canzonas of Trabaci, see pp. 310-311). Example: NAWM 68
• restless character caused by evading cadences.
• Froberger's toccatas: alternate free sections with developed fugal sections; laid groundwork for later toccata and fugue works of Buxtehude and Bach.

[notes complete through end of chapter!]